Final sections of memory

We finished the memory module today. Strategies for memory improvement include visual imagery, mnemonics, method of loci & dual coding hypothesis (plus many more - you only need about 4). For each method you need to describe the strategy and then explain why it works. For an example of a past exam question on this topic see Q2 on this paper (January 2011). My ppt is here but is fairly brief - you must make your own notes from the textbook. A sheet that I have used in previous years is here - this contains a table to fill in on the different strategies.

The cognitive interview is straightforward enough. Describe it (remember COPE), give some supporting research, and say why it works. There are a few downsides as well - possibly unsuitable for children and very resource-intensive. My ppt is here.

Age & eyewitness testimony

Today's powerpoint is here, and if you missed the handout come and find me to get one. You need to know three ways in which eyewitness testimony is affected by age, and describe supporting evidence for each. The own-age bias is relevant here - superior recognition for those of our own age. Since many research studies use young people, this might go some way to explaining reduced performance in older participants.

Work for Mrs Watson - 29th November 2011

You need to know how the following factors can influence eyewitness testimony:

1. Leading questions
2. Pre-learned information
3. Arousal
4. Consequences
5. Individual differences

We covered the first four last lesson. Now make your own notes on number 5 - individual differences (this includes age). Make sure your notes from the last few lessons are up to date as well - powerpoints used in class are on the blog and your textbook is very thorough.

Any problems, send me an email.

Therapies based on the three psychological models of abnormality

In addition to the three definitions of abnormality (DSN, FFA and DIMH) and the four models (Biological, Behavioural, Cognitive and Psychodynamic), you need to be able to describe and evaluate five specific types of therapy (two biological ones - ECT and drugs - and one each for the other models). The therapy based on the Psychodynamic Model is usually called Psychoanalysis.

Here is the presentation we looked at in today's lesson.

You need to cover the other two psychological approaches (cognitive and behavioural) next week, and make notes on behavioural therapies (which aim to correct faulty behaviour with classical and operant conditioning) and cognitive therapies (which aim to correct faulty thinking) by Wednesday 7th December:

1) Explain each of the following using the terms UCS, UCR, CS and CR:

• Aversion therapy
• Flooding
• Systematic Desensitisation

2) Explain token economies using the term positive reinforcement

3) Describe how CBT (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy) is used to treat depression and anxiety disorders. Identify which elements of it are cognitive, and which are behavioural.

Of these Systematic Desensitisation and CBT are the important ones, in that they are the only ones named in the specifications, so the only onse you can be asked specifically about in an exam. We will look at the evaluation of these therapies, and of psychoanalysis, in our next lesson.

Eyewitness testimony

Can we trust our memory? If you witnessed a crime, would your memory of it stand up in court? We are going to look at an area of memory research that has influenced legal practice. The experiments of Elizabeth Loftus and her colleagues were key in showing how unreliable eyewitness testimony can be.

Today's powerpoints are here and here.

You need to make your own notes on Loftus (1975), using your textbook.

Some statistics

Last week we covered a fairly exciting section of the research methods specification - measures of dispersion and measures of central tendency. You need to know:

• How to calculate the mean, mode & median
• When it is appropriate to use each - ie the mean is affected by extreme scores so it might be best to use the median when you have lots of these, and the mode is best used for nominal (categoric) data
• How to calculate the range and when to use it
• What the standard deviation is and when to use it. You don't need to do the maths here but the standard deviation is a measure of the spread of the data around the mean.

This is all well covered in your textbook so do make your own notes as well.

Work for Mr Lawrence - Wednesday 23rd November

I'm recovering from a virus and not in school today.

We will have a short test on Friday on the four models of abnormality so revise these, looking particularly at the cognitive model which we spent least time on in class.

For this lesson's work, read and make notes on Psychoanalysis, the therapy based on the Psychodynamic approach. Don't confuse this with the term 'psychotherapy' which is any psychological therapy - that is, anything not biological. In particular make sure you have notes explaining the following key terms:

• Insight
• Free association
• Manifest content (of a dream)
• Latent content (of a dream)
• Projective test (e.g. Rorschach ink blots)

When evaluating a therapy we need to consider its efficacy (how effective it is), how well it works for different disorders and for different types of people, how time-consuming and expensive it is and ethical issues. This is easier to do when we've looked at the therapies suggested by all the models, but have a read about this and we'll discuss on Thursday.

Psychodynamic, Behavioural and Cognitive models of Abnormality

Here are the presentations for the psychodynamic, behavioural and cognitive models. We spent some time in September looking at each of these approaches to psychology in general. For your exam you need to describe them as 'models of abnormality' - that is, general theories/explanations - key assumptions about the causes of abnormality and general strengths and weaknesses of their explanations.

It's very useful, but not essential, to know how each model explains one or two specific disorders - we've talked about schizophrenia (best explained biologically), depression (biological and cognitive) and phobias (behavioural).

Here is a documentary on Freud which is useful for evaluation of his theory - remember that there are more modern psychodynamic explanations too, with less focus on early childhood and sex.

Here is your essay for submission through Edmodo by Friday 25th November.
a) Describe the behavioural and cognitive models of abnormality. 12 marks AO1
b) Compare and contrast these models – which provides the more useful explanation of abnormality? 12 marks AO2

Work for Mr Lawrence - Wednesday 9th November

I'm not in school today I'm afraid. You need to do the following by Friday's lesson:

Spend no more than 25 minutes writing an answer to this exam question, without looking at your textbook or any notes:

"Describe and evaluate the biological model of abnormality." 6 marks AO1 (for knowledge and understanding of the model) + 6 marks AO2 (for your analysis and evaluation).

Then, review your notes on Freud's psychodynamic theory of personality, and read the section in your textbook on the psychodynamic model of abnormality. Make notes answering the following questions:

1. How can the 'tripartite personality' (id, ego and superego) be used to explain abnormality?
2. Use examples to explain how defence mechanisms can lead to abnormal behaviour.
3. How did Freud use the ideas of 'fixation' and 'regression' to explain abnormal behaviour.

The criticism of Freud's theory we looked at in September is relevant here. Make sure your notes are clear on the following:

• The problem of Freud's evidence being subjective.
• Why it's difficult to test his theory, making it unfalsifiable (a bad thing, as it's therefore not trustworthy).
• The problem with his sample (cultural and historical).
• A strength in terms of the therapy based on his ideas (psychoanalysis) being about as good as any other therapy.
• A strength in terms of being less reductionist than other models e.g. biological.
• A strength in terms of recognising the importance of childhood, but a limitation in terms of ignoring the present.

The working memory model

We discussed the three components of the working memory model - the central executive, phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. Next lesson we'll look at some of the supporting evidence. Today's powerpoint is here.

You also started your miniprojects - Does the word length disappear when participants are given an articulatory suppression task?

The write-up guidance sheet is here. The completed project must be handed in on Tuesday 22nd November. Don't forget we have a class test on memory next Tuesday, 15th November.

The Biological Model of Abnormality

Just before the holiday we began to look at different models of abnormality. A model in this sense is a general theory or explanation - a set of assumptions and ideas about the causes of abnormality in this case. We will return to each of the approaches we covered at the start of the course (psychodynamic, behavioural and cognitive) to look in more depth at how they explain abnormal behaviour, and how they propose it should be dealt with.

To revise the key ideas of the approaches we looked at various explanations for the eating disorder Anorexia Nervosa. You don't need to know about any specific psychological disorders for your exam, but it's useful to know examples to extend your answers. Here are the cards we used in the lesson.

The biological model assumes that psychological disorders have physical causes in the brain - these may be genetic in origin, or be caused by infection. The structure of the brain (neuroanatomy) may be changed, or the balance of neurotransmitter chemicals (brain biochemistry) may be the problem.

Here is the presentation from the lesson.

Homeword for Tuesday 8th November is to complete notes on the Biological Model using your textbook, and focusing on its strengths and limitations. A list of points to use:
 
Successful explanation of general paresis (insanity caused by syphilis bacteria)?

• Humane or inhumane?
• Cause or effect?
• Objective, scientific evidence?
• Inconclusive evidence?
• Diathesis-Stress? - We will spend some time on this last one next week.

The use and abuse of student participants

We've discussed recently how the classic STM experiments (Peterson & Peterson, Baddeley (1966) etc) might be lacking in population validity - they tend to use university students as participants as these are readily available. This is widespread in experimental psychology, and psychology students often have to take part in research to gain course credit.

Here is an interesting article investigating the ethics & practical issues involved in using student participants.

Kerboodle and Edmodo tasks, and homework for next lesson.

Kerboodle is an online resource that links in with our Nelson Thornes textbook. You now have logins in the following form:
Username: initial of first name followed by last name with no spaces e.g. 'tlawrence' (if you have spaces or hyphens in your name these are removed so james smith-jones would be 'jsmithjones'.
Password: same but with a 0 (zero) on the end. If your last name is only three letters along, then 00!
Organisation code: 5166

There are two tasks for you to do now, and one for the end of the holiday.

Edmodo is our unofficial school VLE. You can use it to hand in work, which will then be storred online, along with my comments on it. Use your password when you sign up if you haven't done so already - you can use this to log in if you forget your username.
You either need to sign up for this yourself and use the following code to join the AS Psychology group: p537na or log in and click 'join' in your 'groups' panel on the left and enter the code.

For our next lesson on Wednesday 2nd November, research and bring a piece of paper with a summary of the following:
What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia, and the permissive amine hypothesis of depression?

• What is the evidence that these disorders have a genetic basis?

Interesting TV series alert

This looks great - if you missed the first episode like I did, catch up on i-player

Experimental design

We evaluated the multi-store model first and then went on to some research methods. You need to know the three types of experimental design - independent groups, repeated measures and matched pairs, plus the strengths and weaknesses of each. Try and work out the design of all the memory experiments that we've covered in class. Your textbook covers this area well, on pages 109-111. The ppt is here.

Defining Abnormality

The first section of our Abnormality topic is concerned with ways psychologists use to categorise people as 'normal' or 'abnormal' - these methods are called Definitions of Abnormality. They are not explanations as to why people may be psychologically abnormal - we will look at how each of the four approaches explains this next.

The definitions you need to be able to explain and evaluate are (click for presentation):

Deviation from Social Norms

Failure to Function Adequately

Deviation from Ideal Mental Health

In practice psychiatrists and psychologists don't ever use just one definition, they use a 'classificatory system' which is based on a mixture of these ideas. The use of such systems is often called the 'disease model' or 'medical model' of abnormality, because it assumes that psychological disorders can be classified and diagnosed based on clusters of symptoms, much like physical diseases.

Here is a short presentation on this.

For Wednesday 19th October:

An essay, to be word processed and brought electronically (300-400 words):

"Put the three definitions of abnormality in order from most to least useful. Justify your decision with reference to their strengths and limitations."

Revise the 'defining abnormality' section for a test.

The multi-store model

This is the first model of memory that you need to know: the multi-store model. We've covered STM and LTM so today we looked at sensory memory (SM). We will evaluate the validity of the model next lesson. The ppt is here and this covers next lesson as well.

Encoding and an ESSAY

An in-depth look and replication of Baddeley (1966), which most of us managed to get our heads round by the end of the lesson. The powerpoint containing all the stimuli is here.

You need to be consolidating the material learnt now after every lesson. This means reading over your class notes and then the relevant section in your textbook, amending your notes as necessary, and checking it all makes sense. Look in other texts if necessary - there are plenty in the sixth form study room. Test yourself with the summary questions in the textbook. A VERY useful document including answers to the summary questions and a glossary is here.

We also looked at visual encoding in short-term memory. The ppt on Brandimote et al is here.

Your first essay for me is due on Tuesday 18th October. A suggested plan is here. Title:

‘Give a brief account of the differences between STM and LTM, and consider the extent to which research supports the distinction between them’ (12 marks).

Duration in long-term memory

We discussed how good long-term memory is, and the difficulties of studying it. The Bahrick study ppt is here.

We also had a first look at some past exam papers. If you go to the AQA website and find our course (Psychology A grouped under Sciences), then you will find lots of past exam papers and mark schemes under the 'key materials' tab. I'd post a link but I want you to be able to find it yourself as it's such a great resource.

The powerpoint on capacity is here.

The Cognitive Approach

Yesterday we spent some time introducing key debates in Psychology. It would be helpful for you to do some reading about these here:
Nature Nurture;
Reductionism;
Science.

Our third approach is the Cognitive - this is probably the hardest to pin down to a simple explanation. It focuses on the mind, but not the subconscious drives and memories of the Psychodynamic approach. Instead it treats the brain as a computer, and studies how it processes and stores information. Like the behavioural approach it deals with stimuli and responses to them, but suggests that we need to study the mental processes (like thinking) that take place between these.
Here is the presentation. and some useful reading, and some more.

We will have a test on these approaches, including the biological approach which we will look at on Friday, next Wednesday 28th September.

Variables and hypotheses

Today we got stuck in to some research methods and you worked through lots of examples yourself. It is vital that you are familiar with and know how to use the following terms:

Independent variable

Dependent variable

Hypotheses - directional and non-directional

Aim

Operationalisation

Next lesson we'll be back to memory again.

I have put an electronic version of the red research methods booklet here.

The Behavioural Approach

The second 'approach' to Psychology we looked at was the Behavioural Approach. This rejects the idea that we need to understand the mind at all, and instead focuses on how behaviours are learned through simple mechanisms - classical and operant conditioning - that can be studied in rats and pigeons. The assumption of extreme behaviourists (who don't really exist any more) is that learned associations can explain all human behaviour.

Here is the presentation from the lesson on Wednesday 14th, including the slides on the debates in Psychology (nature vs nurture; reductionism; Psychology as a Science; Free Will vs determinism) which we discussed the following lesson.

Homework was to define, in your own words, the following:

• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning
• Scientific psychology
• Reductionism
• Free will
• Determinism
• Nature
• Nurture

Evaluating Freud's theory

We spend the first lesson today looking at evidence we can use to evaluate Freud's theory - you can download the cards we used here. For next Wednesday you need to choose some of these ideas to write an evaluation of Freud's theory. This should include an explanation of both positive and negative criticisms, leading to a conclusion of your own - 1/2 to 2/3 of a side if you're handwriting is enough, but it needs to be carefully and clearly written.

My evaluation of Freud's theory in one sentence: "Many of the details of Freud's theory are not scientifically testable and therefore not trustworthy, but some big ideas like the unconscious are very valuable, and it 'opened the door' to other psychological explanations of personality, behaviour and abnormality."

The man who keeps falling in love with his wife

Today we started to discuss how we might define memory. We looked at the case of Clive Wearing with severe anterograde amnesia. The video we watched is here and some other info, including Clive's history, is here.

We also carried out an experiment into the duration of short term memory with some interesting results and some good criticisms raised by the class. The powerpoint is here. Textbooks coming soon!

Freud's Theory of Personality

We spent a lesson on Friday looking at Freud's rather complicated theory of the development of personality through stages of psychosexual development during childhood. You should have notes in the format set out below, including the key terms and concepts given, by next lesson on Wednesday. If you've already got this clearly in your holiday work on Freud you don't need to duplicate it, but you do need to know it! Here is the presentation used in the lesson.

¡Definitions: personality / psychodynamic

¡Tripartite personality:

§Define id / ego / superego

§Define conscious / subconscious

¡Psychosexual development:

§List stages / outline Oedipus complex and penis envy / outline concepts of fixation and regression

¡Defence Mechanisms:

§Explain concept / give examples including denial and repression

First Lesson - What is Psychology?

"Poets are masters of us ordinary men, in knowledge of the mind, because they drink at streams which we have not yet made accessible to science." — Sigmund Freud

Welcome to the 12c Psychology Blog. We spent some time in today's lesson talking about what psychology is. Well done to Oscar for providing a tidy textbook definition - the study of 'mind and behaviour'. Sometimes this is given as the 'science of mind and behaviour' but this is controversial due to the difficulties of experimenting on people (it often isn't practical or ethical to manipulate them the way we'd like to) and directly observing their thoughts. BUT, Freud's 'streams' are being made more accessible to science by new technologies such as fMRI (functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging).

The holiday task, looking at Freud's theory of personality, why it is widely believed to be wrong, and why it is still highly influential despite this, is to be completed by Friday afternoon's lesson, if you haven't already. Here's a link to the subject information sheet which has it on the bottom.